World War II: A Time of Darkness

World War II still remains one of the biggest conflicts between super powers of the world to this day. It also holds one of the biggest death tolls, which totals to over 60 million people. According to militaryfactory.com, the casualtie number for the U.S. alone was 407,316 people. For my interview, I am going to uncover through my grandfather, the stories and experiences of his brother Chester and how life was back then in the war, and to be a U.S. soldier in a time of great darkness. "More than 50 nations took part in the war, which changed the world forever." http://www2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=4605. A quote that shows that soldiers all over the world experienced one of the bloodiest and deadliest wars of all time.

References:

N.A., World War II: An Overview. 1988. Scholastic.com

About.Com: American History. 2011. Overview of World War II.

An Uncommon Life: My Grandmother, as a Snapshot of World War II

When thinking of World War II one of the first things that often comes to mind are the brave soldiers and the battles they fought in. Often overlooked in these memories is the fact that World War II was not only fought by soldiers in the frontlines, but by many people in supporting positions that were just as critical to the outcome. My Grandmother,Joan Brown, was a member of the British
Signal Corps who transmitted vital communications between combat troops and commanders of the armed forces so I asked her some questions about the time. She was one of the many women who worked quietly behind the scenes during World War II and had a very uncommon life in the service that illustrates both an average and extraordinary life of the time. The Union Jack from dwcc.eu

The Early Days and the Blitz
During World War II life was difficult no matter where you lived. The Great Depression had affected the whole world, there was no escaping it. Between that and the war everybody made sacrifices, men and women. According to David Diffrient though, while there is an understanding of sacrifices that women make in time of war there is still a “lack of consciousness among many” even with the men they sacrificed for (pg.45). My Grandmother was no different. During this time rationing supplies was a common practice in all of the countries in the war. She recalls having to wait in line an hour and a half for two bananas. About this she said “I was actually happy when I joined the service because you got better meals in the service.” Clothing was rationed too. My Grandmother recalls how lucky her sister was to be able to have a dress for her wedding.
While rationing was a hardship of the time Americans can relate to, life in Britain during WWII was far more difficult than life in America because it was a warzone. America has been fortunate as a country to be bordered by oceans allowing it to be isolated from war. This is not to say the US knows nothing of war or tragedy but the last time America was attacked by another nation was Pearl Harbor and that was not even mainland, 9/11 while tragic was an act of terrorism not war. During WWII however, Britain was the last major hold out against Hitler in Europe and during Hitler’s bombing campaign known as the Blitzkrieg the entire country was a warzone. This is something hard to imagine for Americans, although we have tried, as we have never experienced anything like it.
a picture of England during the Blitz from millerpla.net

Recalling this time my Grandmother had a lot to say. She lived in the suburbs and remembered everyone building tank traps in the streets because they all expected a full-on Nazi invasion to proceed after the bombings. During this time all British citizens were given the order to “black it out” during the air raids. This involved covering the openings of one’s home to make sure no light entered or exited so it looked abandoned to discourage Nazis bombing it as it would appear no casualties would result from it. My Grandmother says there were two types of bomb shelters families used during the time. One was simply a steel table everyone got under akin to the ridiculous drills American children did in school in the 50’s when we were certain that the Russians were going to bomb us into oblivion, and the other was called an Anderson shelter which was a shed in the garden built to withstand the bombings. One particular event she remembers in tragic detail was the destruction of the Lady Owens School which was near her home. She recalls “the whole place was leveled with everyone still inside. You could hear the moanings of the survivors but no one was able to dig them out and they died … The stench (of the buried corpses) was all you could smell for quite some time”. She said that later the ground was consecrated and is presently a cemetery.


In the Army Now
World War II was a difficult time. Everyone who was able to lend a hand did according to my grandmother, Joan. America was similar in that nearly every able bodied man served in the military during that time. Because of this many jobs were left open and many of them were factory jobs important to supporting the war effort. Factories had to search for new workers and the solution seemed obvious according to Bilge Yesil “women entered better-paying and new kinds of occupations and increased their participation in the labour force during the Second World War” (pg. 104). This is when the now iconic image of Rosie the Riveter started appearing to encourage women in the United States to join the war effort.Though not all women ran out and joined the workforce that did not make the non working women less significant. During wartime Diffrient reminds “housewives and mothers took on numerous responsibilities outside the home” (pg. 48) and even the little things were “combined with patriotic motives and injected with a sense of public duty” (Yesil pg.112).During this time “media discourse rendered home front experiences into patriotic and selfless acts, and embraced homemakers into the war effort” (Yesil pg.110).
Great Britain was no different and having entered the war much earlier, was far ahead in getting women involved. My grandmother was among the thousands of British women who supported the war effort. She did not have the typical factory job that it is often assumed women took during World War II. Instead she was drafted into the signal corps which was typical of the time in England but seems rather strange to us in the United States as women do not get drafted here.According to my Grandmother in England they never referred to this as a draft but in Britain the proper term the referred to the draft by was a “call up”. At the time she said all women 18-34 were called and men were taken younger than that. In fact the need for recruits in Britain was far greater than in the US. My Grandmother recalls “At the time I was called up I had a broken left arm but they still took me”.

A Chance Romance
In the Signal Corps her job involved translating intelligence and making sure it got to the right people. She was often knowledgeable of information of many significant events before they happened such as D-Day. While in the service she met her future husband, an American soldier named Eugene. He worked as an engineer and had to go places to build bridges and makeshift airfields in war torn Europe to allow the rest of the soldiers to traverse the terrain. He would have to fight with the rest of the army and he was involved in liberating a concentration camp (we don’t know which one because he never talked about it). This made my Grandmother’s job harder on her because she would almost always know where he would be next and what type of resistance he would encounter but was not allowed to tell him. Lucky for them both he walked away fine and after the war they got married and she went with him back to America.

Joan and her Yank Husband after the war from her archives



Name Dropping
Outside of her regular duties in the corps my grandmother met some historical figures in her line of work and went to some special places few can say they have been. She was often courier of top secret documents that she would have to deliver personally to Winston Churchill’s bunker,, though she admits she was never lucky enough to meet Churchill himself.
She did meet the famed British General Montgomery (or “Monty” as she calls him). He once inspected the camp she was working at and she was fortunate enough to shake his hand.
Another time she got to meet Eleanor Roosevelt when she came to spoke to war-brides about the differences about the United States and England. While she never said it at the time and told me only reluctantly my grandmother described Mrs. Roosevelt as a “horse faced woman but very nice.She never smiled though”.
Eleanor Roosevelt (visual approximation) from freenaturephotos.com
One thing she recalls Roosevelt discussing was the language differences. As we all know the English we speak in America is very different than the English they speak in England. Anyhow she said that Eleanor explained little things like how in America we say we are “doing the dishes” but in England they “wash up” and what they call petroleum is gasoline to us. My Grandmother called this very informative but said it was not enough to prepare her for life in America. One misunderstanding she was not prepared for was when she visited the turkey farm of my grandfather’s siblings. She wanted to tell his sister that the atmosphere was nice and that she had a very motherly aura about herself so my Grandmother called her “homely”. This led to an amusing misunderstanding as in England being homely does not mean ugly but instead motherly or homey. She does not use that term anymore. The other really funny one comes from an idiomatic difference. According to my Grandmother in England when one wants someone to call them on the phone they don’t say “call me” but say “knock me up” the genesis of the term due to the fact those old fashioned doorknockers are very common in England, but in the US it has a sexual connotation. She was very surprised the first time she made this mistake in America but thought it was funny so to this day she still says it. So remember if a British person asks you to “knock them up” they want you to call them.
So that in a nutshell is the story of my Grandmother’s life during World War II. Like everyone of the time she endured the same hardships and was one of the typical working women of the time that offered up their service and dedication to the cause. And while living a seemingly common life for the time she was involved in many important operations and met some important people that we only know today from the history books which shows us that even a common life at the time can be something quite uncommon down the road.

Works Cited

Brown, Joan. Personal interview. 23 April 2011.

Diffrient, David Scott. "HISTORY AS MYSTERY AND BEAUTY AS DUTY IN THE 1940S HOUSE (1999)." Film & History (03603695) 37.1 (2007): 43-53. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 8 May 2011.

Milward, A.S. “The End of the Blitzkrieg”. New Series, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1964), pp. 499-518 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Economic History Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2592851

Yesil, Bilge. "'Who said this is a Man's War?': propaganda, advertising discourse and the representation of war worker women during the Second World War." Media History 10.2 (2004): 103-117. America: History & Life. EBSCO. Web. 7 May 2011.

Visuals
The Union Jack http://www.dwcc.eu/Union%20Jack.jpg
England during the Blitz http://millerpla.net/wp-content/Pictures/LondonBombedWWII_full.jpg
Eleanor Roosevelt horse www.freenaturephotos.com/photos/animal-photos/images/horse.jpg

Decade of War: Happiest Decade of Our Life

The 1940's was a decade dominated by the Second World War. Fashion, music, movies, and other entertainment was greatly impacted by America's involvement in the war. It would seem that the dominating influence of war would make the 1940's a tense and depressing era in United States history; however, speaking to a gentleman growing up during this time, I learned that my thoughts about the 40's were wrong. I interviewed a family friend, asking questions regarding the impact of the war and his service in the marines, to help me understand life during the 40's. Most people do not understand that the 40's were not always sad and depressing; although we know the 40's as the decade of World War II and "the most devastating genocide in history," (Forster) in my subject's case, the war brought out the best in people rather than the worst. My interview subject, who wishes to remain anonymous and will be reffered to as Joe Smith, recalls that "The 40's was the happiest decade I remember growing up. It was the last decade before the world turned upside down in the 50's and 60's." He entered the marines in 1945 at the age of seventeen, joining at the tail end of WWII. He remained in service for 21 years and describes the experience as such, "The lifestyle was predictable; you know what you are going to do every morning, and I liked that. Some people didn't, but I did," (Smith). He does not have any specific memories of his service, he claims he never did anything worth remembering; however, he has extensive memories of life before entering the marines.

Media in the War
Movies and radio were the main means of communication in the 40's, and because of the war most media depended on these as a way of promoting and informing listeners about the war. My subject recalls "Any pictures that depicted war at that time were popular. My favorites were The Fighting 69th with James Cagney, The Flying Leathernecks with John Wayne and Sergeant York with Gary Cooper, this one was most popular," (Smith). Most people think of war as tearing people apart, but it also brings people together. Smith compares the lifestyle of today with his memories of the forties, concluding "You never had to lock your door at night, because there was no fear of anyone breaking in. There was no tension between people, during or before the war. The war affected everyone; almost everybody had someone killed or injured in the war. It was our way of coming together."

Life During the War

Smith was born in 1928, growing up during the Great Depression; however, he was "too young to realize," any major financial disasters as a result of the economic issues. Smith repeatedly refers to the 40's as "the best" and "the happiest" time of his life, despite the difficulties created by war and the economy. Smith describes "when the war broke out, lines of people wanted to enlist; they felt it was their duty. I think it was a combination of wanting to serve their country and get back at Japan." Almost everyone was involved with the war effort in the 40's; members of the same family joined the service together and often times multiple people were killed from the same family. These losses brought families and strangers together during the war effort, creating trust and forgiveness in a time of hostility.


School Days
School in the forties was not much different than it is now-a-days. Same basic subjects including math reading, science and history, however, there were no special subjects such as music or gym. When I asked Smith about his favorite subject in school he replied "History. History was my favorite subject. I loved to learn about the past." His love for history continues to this day, for he is intrigued with news and passes on his historic knowledge to family and friends. The main difference between school during the forties and modern-day school is that students today are more intrigued with learning and tend to get more out of their education. According to Smith, "Boys were waiting to turn 16 so they could quit school and join the military. They stayed in school until they were 16, worked for a year then enlisted." Like most boys his age, Smith attended school until 16, quit and worked in a factory for a year before he enlisted in the marines at age 17. Quitting school was the norm back then; in 1940, only 0.8% of children continued their education beyond the junior level, with 1.1% in 1945 (Curtin). More than half of the US population had completed no more than 8th grade in 1940, whereas today, 13 million teens report to high school everyday (Wikianswers). Another difference between school in the forties is with the teachers; Smith recalls "Every teacher looked like they were 80 years old. They were very strict, and there was a lot of discipline." He also explains "Back then, graduating high school was like graduating college now. It was a big deal because not many people did it. There was a reason I didn't go to college; there were no grants, no student loans, unless you were rich, you didn't go to college," (Smith). 60% of today's jobs require education past high school, compared to only 20% in the 40's (Wikianswers). Education is a big part of success today, and with financial aid and student loans, getting a higher education is more accessible for the average person.

Activities
Roller skating was very popular in the forties, as were other non-organized clubs and activites; on the other hand, organized events such as school football games are more popular today. Sandlot baseball was played often by teens, although shortages of wood and rubber due to the war effort required a higher level of imagination by the athletes. Despite these shortages, people were encouraged to continue participating in and supporting professional sports as a way to increase morale of the troops. The Green Light Letter was signed by President Roosevelt in 1942 supporting the continuation of baseball during the war. Baseball provided people with employment and was a relaxing and fun way to take your mind off the war. The importance of baseball games increased during the war, to a point where the Japanese tried to jam radio broadcasts. Half of the baseball players had enlisted by 1943 (Goodwin). Also a common game was kick the can, but the most popular entertainment was of course, the movies. The forties was known as "the heyday" (Goodwin) of movies; Smith recalls "It was 50 cents for a movie and a popcorn," and today we are lucky to go for under $10. With so many things changing and evolving, Smith says it best when he states "It was a whole different era."

Conclusion
By interviewing my subject I learned that even through war and murder, people are willing to come together and support the greater good. The 1940's was no doubt a difficult time in history, but for Joe Smith it was a cherished time in his life filled with happiness and fun. I learned how the horrors of World War II united America, showing our strength as a dominating world power. The war influenced media, fashion and entertainment, with war pictures gaining popularity. Movies and radio were used as propaganda and to update listeners on the stage of war. Children went to school similar to today, but most quit at the age of 16, worked for a year and then enlisted in the war. People felt it was their duty to honor America by fighting the Japanese; lines of Americans waited to volunteer to enlist when the war first broke out. Hardly any teens graduated from high school in the 40's and very few went off to college. You had to be rich to get a good education and with the war and just coming out of the Great Depression, rich people were second to none. Baseball was a main way of showing support for the troops and entertaining those waiting to hear from family in the war. Other activities such as roller skating and dancing also help soldiers recuperate after their service. The forties were thought to be characterized by war, hostility and genocide; however, my subject opened my eyes to all the great aspects of life during the forties. Through Smith I learned that troubled times bring people toegether and make happy memories.

Works Cited

Curtin, John. "School Days." War and Peace:Rationing and Rebuilding. Web. 13 May. 2011. <http://john.curtin.edu.au/1940s/school/>

"February 23, 1945: The U.S. Marines Raise Two Flags at Iwo Jima." Common American Journal. n.p., 2011. Web. 29 Apr. 2011. <http://commonamericanjournal.com/?p=25398>

Forster, Stig. "Total War and Genocide: Reflections on the Second World War." Australian Journal of Politics & History 53.1 (2007): 68-83. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 18 Apr. 2011.

Goodwin, Sue. "1940-1949." American Cultural History. Web. 16 May 2011. <http://kclibrary.lonestar.edu/decade40.html>

Richa, Robert. "Bob's Baseball Museum." Web. 16 May 2011. <http://www.bobsbaseballmuseum.com/rare_items_2>

Smith, Joe. Personal interview. 24 Apr. 2011.

Steiner, Max. "Filmography." n.p., n.d. Web. 29 Apr. 2011. <http://chelsearialtostudios.com/maxsteinerpages/filmography.htm>

"What was life like for a teenager in the 1940's?" Wkikianswers. Web. 16 May 2011. <http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_was_life_like_for_a_teenager_in_the_1940s>

Women in the WAVES:A Stepping Point into Women’s Equality

Eileen Rouine circa 1942 provided by Rouine, Eileen

World War II was one of the most important moments in the history of the United States, because women got to play an important role. Not only did women join the workforce, but they had their own military services. Eileen Rouine was in one of the women’s military services, and she was in the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service or the WAVES.

Women in the WAVES by Campbell

She was fortunate enough to be involved in the WAVES, and it is where she had some of her most memorable experience and made her lifelong friends. The women’s military services were important to history because it changed the way that people looked at women, they could now be in the work force without being judged. Life before the war was described as “In the case of women, life course stages have historically been restricted to a few options: girlhood, schooling, paid employment, marriage, motherhood, and widowhood. In recent decades, paid employment has become much more important and has been the focus of an enormous amount of research” (Campbell). Because of the women’s military services, women were able to join the workforce and contribute to society more than they could have in the past. This research project on the women of World War II shows that women did play a crucial role in the war, and that they could in fact, work alongside the men.

Growing Up

Eileen was born and raised in Lowell Massachusetts, a city rich with history blooming from the industrial revolution. Eileen describes the history of Lowell and her family saying “My grandmother and my mother were both workers in the mills when they were young, and luckily for me I did not have to work there. They described their experiences as terrible, and they did not want that life for me” (Rouine). But because Eileen grew up when the great depression hit, money was tight and her father struggled with trying to keep the family together. Eileen said “My father would try everything he could to keep food on our table; we even had a garden in our yard which was unusual for our neighborhood” (Rouine). Eileen was aware that times were tough when she was young, and ever since then she knew the importance of a job, and she was not unlike other women in the country. Women workers during the depression are described as “Those traditional gender roles assumed that all women were members of families with a male breadwinner at its head, but that description did not always match reality. Women who were widowed or divorced, or whose husbands had deserted them, struggled to keep their families afloat; single women had to fend for themselves. These women were truly on the margins, practically invisible” (“Histroy Now”). Eileen believes that the need for women to work became greater during the depression, because it was tough for everyone; money was so tight that people couldn’t afford to not work. Eileen remembers looking up to Eleanor Roosevelt, because she was a strong woman who encouraged women to stand up for themselves. Roosevelt played a major part in the 1930’s as well as others, it was described as:

Secretary of Labor Frances Perkins, the first woman in the cabinet, oversaw many of the social welfare initiatives and Ellen Sullivan Woodward supervised women’s relief projects for the Works Progress Administration, while Molly Dewson promoted an issue-oriented reform agenda from her position at the Democratic National Committee. Their effectiveness was dramatically enhanced by access to Eleanor Roosevelt, who used her position as First Lady to advance the causes of women, blacks, and other marginalized groups (“History Now”).

Because Eileen had such strong female role models, she did not have to think twice about her decision to join the WAVES.

Eileen and the Other WAVES provided by Rouine, Eileen

The War Days

America in the early 1940’s went through many changes; we entered into World War II, most of the men in the workforce went to join the war, and women started to take the jobs that were left by the men. Some of the jobs that were created specifically for women were created by the military. Eileen Rouine remembers the feeling that she had once she found out that America was entering the war. Her family decided that they would support all of the decisions made by the siblings regarding the war. Eileen reflected on those times saying “My family was supportive of my decision to go into the WAVES, they embraced it actually. They also accepted my brother’s decision to join the ARMY as well. My family was proud to say that they had relatives making a difference for the safety of the country” (Rouine). In 1941, Eileen enlisted in the WAVES and reported to the First Naval District in Boston, Massachusetts. This is where Eileen would meet some of her lifelong friends and, some enemies. The training that she went through gave her confidence and the leadership skills that she would take with her for the rest of her life. Eileen laughed as she recalled a funny thing that happened when she was a typist. Explaining the story with a smile on her face she told me “the training was not tough compared to some of the people that I had to deal with. One day, some woman was giving me trouble, she wanted to give me an attitude so I waited until she went to sit down and I pulled her chair out from under her. She fell down. I never had a problem with her again” (Rouine). If it were not for her confidence being so high from her training she would not have done that.

Along with the building of confidence, the WAVES taught women important life skills that they could take with them for future work opportunities. The WAVES taught women many different skills ranging from how to work/ repair the machinery, how to type and keep records, how to cook large amounts of food and how to take care of wounded soldiers. Eileen’s role in the WAVES was to keep records and the finances of certain sections of the Navy. She explained a normal day as “I would go into one of the big workrooms, and there would be certain things for me to type, such as some purchases that were made and type up the telegraphs that were to be sent out that day” (Rouine). The WAVES gave Eileen and thousands of other women the skills and courage to move forward after the war to enter the workforce.

What Came From This

Women knew that once they were able to join the military, they should be able to join the workforce as well, but that was not as well received after the war was over. Eileen explained by saying “They gave us Rosie the Riveter, but once the war was over we were expected to go back home. This was not good enough for women anymore, and we started to make a change for the good. We made a push to enter the workforce, and we took the men by surprise” (Rouine). Although Eileen went to go work in the drug store that her husband’s family owned, many women were not so lucky. Many women who had been members of the WAVES and the other military forces were not able to go back to work after the war ended and society told them to go back to the kitchen. Although women had proven that they could work regular jobs, it was described as “Many women remained in the workforce but employers forced them back into lower-paying female jobs. Most women were laid off and told to go back to their homes” (“Rosie the Riveter”). This was hard for women to take, but they fought through what society wanted them to do, and they were ready to enter the workforce. Eileen said “I was proud to be a woman, and I knew that I could have the confidence to go out and look for jobs, and not take no for an answer” (Rouine).

Life After War

After the war, Eileen settled down and got married, she recalls this time saying “Once the war was over, I met my husband, and we decided that we can work side by side, and it was one of the happiest times in my life.” Eileen, like so many different Americans were starting to have children, and this time would later be called the baby boom. The Baby boom was described as “The years between 1946 and 1964 produced approximately 76 million American children, an average of four million births per year for 19 years” (DECD). Eileen worked in the drug store that her husband owned with his brother, and was able to support their now growing family. Eileen said “after I meet Fuzzy (Frank Rouine) I knew that my life was all set. We had four lovely children and my life was stable. I was able to work alongside my husband and watch my children grow; I am proud that my children were able to have two parents that served in WWII” (Rouine).

World War II was an interesting time; the American people were dedicated to making everything to help with the war, the majority of the men were in the war, and the women were left to pick up the pieces. For Eileen, it was no question to enter the WAVES. She knew that her family would support her, and she would never question her decision. She was proud of what she accomplished in the WAVES, and what she accomplished after. She is proud that she was able to work alongside her husband in the workforce. Eileen summed up everything by saying “I have lived an interesting life, I have no regrets, and I would not take anything back. I am proud to say that my children are all successful and my life has been a “happy one” (Rouine).

Eileen and I at the beach provided by Rouine, Eileen

Works Cited

Campbell, D'Ann. "Servicewomen Of World War II." Armed Forces & Society (0095327X) 16.2 (1990): 251-270. Military & Government Collection. EBSCO. Web. 3 May 2011.http://web.fitchburgstate.edu:2083/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=24&sid=df2a2fe3-76b4-424c-b7ac-3256cf8119be%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d

"DECD: Research." CT.gov Portal. Web. 13 May 2011. http://www.ct.gov/ecd/cwp/view.asp?A=1106&Q=250946

"History Now. The Historians Perspective." The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History . Home. Web. 13 May 2011. http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historynow/03_2009/historian4.php

"Rosie the Riveter: Women Working During World War II." U.S. National Park Service - Experience Your America. Web. 03 May 2011. http://www.nps.gov/pwro/collection/website/rosie.htm

Rouine, Eileen D. Personal interview. 07 May 2011.

Rouine, Eileen D. 1942. Photograph

The (Seeming) Calm Before the Storm: South Vietnam and the U.S. in the Early 1960s

Introduction
Popular media has given us iconic images of the Vietnam War and its aftermath. From the harrowing, nightmarish scenes in the film Apocalypse Now, to the famous picture of a crying, naked, napalm-burned Vietnamese girl running down a road, to news photos of ragged Vietnamese "boat people" escaping the country after the fall of Saigon. What most people don't realize, however, is that U.S. involvement in Vietnam began long before the "official" start of the undeclared war, following the Gulf of Tonkin incident in August 1964.


While the U.S. population was distracted by numerous domestic issues—including desegregation riots in the South, the March on Washington and Martin Luther King's "I Have a Dream" speech, John F. Kennedy's assassination, and the Beatles' appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show—servicemen like my father were already in South Vietnam. And by the time U.S. combat troops were sent to Vietnam in March 1965, Lewis Gordon (my father) had returned from the war with his Vietnamese bride Lucy Le (my mother), thus marking the earliest stages of Vietnamese emigration to the U.S.

Using a combination of primary and secondary sources, this research project will shed light on one of the least-known periods of U.S. history—the almost unnoticed lead-up to the Vietnam War. During this time, unbeknownst to most Americans who were distracted by domestic issues, intelligence and military personnel were arriving in South Vietnam and setting the stage for what would become one of the country's greatest debacles. This essay will show that the early 1960s was a crucial time for America, and it will argue that events occuring in Vietnam between 1962 and 1964 were directly responsible for the turbulence of war and immigration that took the country by storm decades later.

Domestic Distractions

As the 1950s gave way to the 1960s, most Americans were completely unaware of the small nation on the other side of the globe known as Vietnam. The reasons for this were understandable.

For one thing, the Civil Rights movement was building and encountering massive resistance from white Americans who did not want blacks to gain equal rights. In 1957, the governor of Arkansas called in the National Guard to prevent black students from attending Little Rock High School ("History"). Governors of two other southern states, Mississippi in 1962 and Alabama in 1963, "physically blocked school doorways at their respective state universities" in an attempt to stop racial integration" ("History").

Photograph of University of Mississippi students protesting racial integration.  October 1962. ("State").














In an interview with my father, Lewis Gordon, he attested to this general lack of knowledge about the situation in Vietnam. As he explained, he had "never even heard of Vietnam until Walter Cronkite mentioned it one night on the CBS evening news" (Gordon, Personal). This occurred in 1961, shortly before Gordon enlisted in the army. As he explains it, he "actually volunteered to go to Vietnam" because he "liked the idea of traveling to a country that was so unknown and mysterious" (Gordon, Personal).

U.S. Passport, provided by Lewis Gordon, acquired shortly after joining the U.S. Army in 1962.

When my father was released from the army in 1964...


Background of U.S. Involvement in Vietnam
"In the fall of 1954, Premier Diem requested U.S. assistance against communist subversion, and on 22 October President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced his intention to strengthen the Diem regime by giving South Vietnam direct military aid. The French began moving their forces out of Vietnam in February 1955. At this time, the first U.S. military assistance advisory group (MAAG), consisting o 481 men, assumed the task of training the South Vietnamese Army and advising on the use of the U.S. aid arriving in South Vietnam." http://www.governmentattic.org/docs/NSA-Cryptologic-History-Series_In-the-Shadow-of-War_1969.pdf

Archival photograph, provided by Lewis Gordon, showing protest in the streets of Saigon, Vietnam against Henry Cabot Lodge, U.S. Ambassador to South Vietnam from 1963-1964.








"On 8 February 1962 the United States established the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), under Lt. Gen. Paul D. Harkins. The MAAG, Vietnam, commanded by Maj. Gen. Charles J. Timmes, continued to operate as a separate organization under General Harkins until May 1964, when the MAAG was phased out. At that time, MACV assumed the MAAG's responsibilities."


Diem coup/death, Nov. 1-2, 1963

Audio of Vietnamese Declaration of Independence, recorded by Elizabeth Gordon, 3 May 2011.

"Though South Vietnam went through two more coups by August 1964, U.S. aid, and the methods under which it was administered by the U.S. advisors, remained substantially the same until the Gulf of Tonkin incident in early August 1964 completely changed the role of the United States in Vietnam."

Lewis And Lucy (And me) in Saigon, Vietnam Circa 19604 Slideshow: Elizabeth’s trip to Saigon (near Ho Chi Minh City), Vietnam was created by TripAdvisor. See another Ho Chi Minh City slideshow. Create a free slideshow with music from your travel photos.

Works Cited

Gordon, Lewis. Personal interview. 15 Apr. 2011.


Gordon, Lewis. "Re: More Vietnam Questions." Message to the author. 29 Apr. 2011. E-mail.

"History of the United States (1945–1964)." History of the United States. Filepie.us., n.d. Web. 2 May 2011. <http://www.filepie.us/?title=History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)>.

Le, Lucy. Personal interview. 18 Apr. 2011.


Sarsini, Enrico, and John Leongard. "Vietnam as One Family Faces It." Life 10 Dec. 1965: 74-92. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. <http://books.google.com/books?id=HkwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA74&dq=vietnam&hl=en&ei=6iSzTeiPGand0QGw1ayxCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CFQQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=vietnam&f=false>.

“State of Siege: Mississippi Whites and the Civil Rights Movement.” MPR News, 4 Mar. 2011. Web. 3 May 2011. Web. <http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2011/03/04/midday2>.